The Shipwreck-beach at Zakynthos. Foto Knut Werner Lindeberg Alsén
Zakynthos ( in Greek: Ζάκυνθος), also called Zante is the third largest of the Ionian Islands. It covers an area of 408 km2 (158 sq mi) and its coastline is roughly 123 km (76 mi) in length.
Zakynthos is situated in western Greece, northwest of the Greek Peloponnese. The island has three major areas, the Vrachionas mountain belt (peaks 756 m) in the west, a flat fertile central plain and the eastern Vassilikos peninsula.
Climatic
* Mediterranean type climate, with wet winters and hot, dry summers
* The hydrological year is considered to last from September to the end of August of the next year
* Annual rainfall rate in island is 1,050 mm corresponding to 428 million m3 per year
* Rainfall mainly from late October to May (85% of annual rainfall) and the peak season is from December to November
* June and July are the months of the lowest rainfall of the island
* Average annual temperature is 16.8 C
* Evapotranspiration estimated to 247 million litre water per year (57.7% of the annual rainfall)
* The natural recharge and runoff (estimated) to be 181 millions litre m3 per year (out of this 149 million litre infiltrates in the limestones, and then it is mainly discharged, through submarine springs in the Ionian Sea. (P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006)
*Total surface potential estimated): 25 million litre per year (Diamantopoulou, 1999)
From a lecture in geology. Stundt Week 2011. Photo: Knut Werner Alsén
Geology
Zakynthos is divided into the western part of Zakynthos with lies in the Pre-Apulian Zone and the eastern part lies in the Ionian Zone, the most western zones of the Greece (Duermeijer et al., 1999). These two zones are divided by the Ionian thrust fault. The Pre-Apulian zone consists of an eastward dipping succession of Upper Cretaceous to Miocene carbonates overlain by Pliocene-Quaternary alluvia. The Quaternary deposits consist of layers of Holocene and Pleistocene gravels, sands, silts and clays (Diamantopoulou & Voudouris, 2007). The Ionian zone consists mainly of Eocene carbonates and Pliocene sediments (Kati & Scholle, 2008).
Limestones cover about 50% of the total area of the island (Vraxionas mountain). Zakynthos is prone to soil erosion due to a combination of steep topography and a highly erosive climate.
Seismically
Zakynthos is a seismically active area, and a part of the Apulian foreland of the Hellenide Orogen which is built up due to the progressive collision of Eurasian and African major tectonic plates that form the Earth’s uppermost layer. The most destructive earthquake in Greece in the last century occurred in the vicinity of the Ionian Islands on August 12, 1953, with a magnitude of 7.2 on the scale of Richter (Stiros et al., 1994), causing a total destruction of the town of Zakynthos (M. Tendürüs, 2008).
There is fragmentary available data about local tsunamis in Zakynthos. The western coast of Greece is an active tsunami-genic zone with return period of 10 years (Soloviev et al., 2000, in M. Tendürüs, 2008). It is known that the waves created by the sea 1622 due to a earthquake swept away the Cape Agios Sostis located at the southern coast of the island (Soloviev et al., 2000; Papazachos & Papazachou, 1997).
Archaeology
The island has been inhabited since the Middle Palaeolithic (late Pleistocene – early Holocene) (van Wijngaarden et al., 2005). Its strategic position because of being the last seaport before entering the Mediterranean Sea and fertile land. Classical and Hellenistic habitation is confirmed through historic written sources, and the Roman period is attested from tombs and individual finds in Zakynthos town and on the Vassilikos peninsula. The Byzantine and Venetian times are known from monuments and written sources. The oldest remains found are Middle Palaeolithic lithics (older than 10 cal kyr BP) (van Wijngaarden, 2006, in R.Goudriaan, 2009). A clear archaeological record however is missing. This is probably caused by a history of natural hazards, especially soil erosion and tectonic activity (van Wijngaarden, 2006).
Sylvia Benton of the British School in Athens was the first archaeologist, who described several archaeological sites on Zakynthos (Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, 1999, in M. Tendürüs, 2008). Benton excavated a Mycenaean house in Cape Kalogeras on the Vasilikos Peninsula and a tholos tomb near Alykanas in the 1930s. Unfortunately her results remained unpublished and at the time of the 1953 earthquake all the finds and records were lost. A flint tool dated to Late Neolithic period (4500 – 3000 B.C.) have been found in the castle up on the town (ancient acropolis). The next excavations were carried out by the Greek Archaeological Service in the 1970s (Mylona, 2006, in M. Tendürüs, 2008). The most recent systematic archaeological research on the island has been continuing since 2005 as a joint project of the Netherlands Institute in Athens (NIA) (M. Tendürüs, 2008). One of the conclusions from the preliminary reports are promising and shows that Zakynthos appears to be a promising area for research into the stratigraphic deposition of Palaeolithic materials (Gert Jan van Wijngaarden et alt, 2008).
Garden, Zakynthos. Photo Knut Werner Alsén
Caretta caretta
The sea turtle (loggerhead) Caretta caretta is the only sea turtle species nesting in Greece. In 1977 important nesting areas were discovered on the island (Margaritoulis, 1982, in Katselidis, et alt 2003 ). Most of the nesting beaches of Zakynthos are found in the Bay of Laganas. Uncontrolled development (mostly tourism) is an important threat for the loggerhead nesting areas (Arianoutsou, 1988, in Katselidis, et alt, 2003). From June to August, the female turtles come on to the beach late in the evening and at night. They dig a deep hole in which they lay their eggs, and cover up the hole again with sand and return exhausted to the sea.
I 1999 a sewerage system for the Laganas region was not working satisfactorily. Much of the waste water empties straight into the sea (Report, on a fact-finding mission to Zakynthos, Greece, on 7–9 November 2003, European Parliamen. The last yeas some of the big hotels have been connected to the central sewerage-system nearby the airport area. Zante town, and some hotels in others big tourist area are also connected to the same plant (Municipality of Zakynthos, 2010).
Income
The present population on the island, besides the Zakynthos town, is concentrated on the central plains and at the coasts. The main income of the island has changed from cultivating olives and currants to tourism. Zakynthos’ past economic base was associated with trade, agriculture, animal breeding and limited fishing. Because of a lack of sufficient jobs and career opportunities, Zakynthos has suffered of emigration. But during the past two decades, Zakynthos has been rapidly moving toward a tourism-dependent development model (Apostolopoulos, 1996).
Population
* 1900: 42,000
* 1981: 30,011
* 1991: 32,556 (island)
* 13,000 (city)
* 2001: 38,596
* 2006 (507 births and 407 deaths)
Hydrogeology and groundwater
Zakynthos is completely dependent on its groundwater resources for fulfilling the demands of the water supplies (P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris (2006)). The use of groundwater resources has become particularly intensive during the last decades because of the intense urbanization, the tourist development and the irrigated land expansion. Three main aquifer systems are aquifers developed in limestones ( Karstic aquifer of carbonate formation), sandstones of neogene deposits, confined aquifer (neogene deposits and Kypseli unit) in the northeastern and has a high water potential, and shallow unconfined alluvial aquifer (phreatic). (P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris (2006))
The groundwater in Zakynthos is used to meet both domestic and agricultural needs. The exploitable groundwater reserves were estimated to be 3.3 million m3 per year. 4.9 millions m3 of the groundwater are extracted, with a maximum daily rate of 21,000 m3 during the summer months (P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006).
Facts about water resources
* Characterized by high water requirements for agricultural and tourism (April–late October), when water availability is low.
* The groundwater is abstracted for domestic and irrigation purposes.
* The tourism industry requires big quantities of water supply (peak consumption during the dry period)
* Average wintertime daily consumption per person: 160 (Municipal Water Company, in P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006)
* Average summertime daily consumption per person: 240 (Municipal Water Company, in P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006)
* Total consumption for domestic use (including the tourism industry): 2.8 million m3
* Irrigation period is May to September
* Maximum of domestic water consumption due to tourism (P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006)
Facts about groundwater
* Exploitable groundwater reserves (estimated): 3.3 million m3 litre (per year).
* Extracted groundwater (on an annual basis): 4.9 million m3 litre (per year)
* Overconsumption (estimated): 1,6 mill m3 (per year)
* Extracted daily (maximum) during summer months: 21,000 m3 (Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006)
Facts about land use
Total crops area: 166.64 km2 (incl.fallow land 24.2 km2) (2001)
* Arable land (32.25 km2)
* Olive trees (65.14 km2)
* Vineyards (31.84 km2)
* Citrus fruits (9.18 km2)
* Garden area (4.05 km2)
* Total irrigated area: 5.25 km2 (Ministry of Agriculture and NSSG 2001, in P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006)
* Chemical fertilizers used for the cultivated crops
* Nitrogen (N) (amount of 30–100 kg ha–1 year–1 is recommended, depending on the type of cultivation) (P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris, 2006)
Literature:
KATI, Marianna, SCHOLLE, Peter.: The Porosity Evolution Of Eocene Limestones In The Preapulian Zone, Zakynthos Island, Western Greece (including geological maps). This work focuses on the distribution and evolution of porosity in Eocenelimestones on Zakynthos Island, apart of the Preapulian carbonate sequence, which has been asignificant object of hydrocarbon investigation in the wider area of western Greece.
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P. Diamantopoulou K. Voudouris. Optimization of water resources management using SWOT analysis: The case of Zakynthos island, Ionian Sea, Greece. 2008 Read more
R.Goudriaan: Erosion/deposition modelling on evaluating and predicting artefact assemblies. Erosion/deposition was investigated on an archaeologically rich hill (Kamaroti) in southern Zakynthos, Greece. Read more
Gert Jan van Wijngaarden, Andreas Sotiriou, Nienke Pieters and Vangelis Tourloukis. THE ZAKYNTHOS ARCHAEOLOGY PROJECT 2006 Preliminary report of the first season* Read more
M. Tendürüs. Earthquakes and archaeology A case study in Zakynthos, Greece: Quantification of the influence of seismic activities on the archaeological remains (2008) Read more
Yiorgos Apostolopoulos and Sevil F. Sönmez From Farmers and Shepherds to Shopkeepers and Hoteliers: Constituency-differentiated Experiences of Endogenous Tourism in the Greek Island of Zakynthos. 1999. Read more
Kostas Katselidis and Dimitrios Dimopoulos THE IMPACT OF TOURIST DEVELOPMENT ON LOGGERHEAD NESTING ACTIVITY
AT DAPHNI BEACH, ZAKYNTHOS, GREECE Read more
European Parlament; a report by the Committee on Petitions on the fact-finding mission to Zakynthos, Greece, in connection with Petitions 261/2001 and 404/2001 (protection of the sea turtle caretta caretta) Read more
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